013 Chapter Three: Whose Design Is It Anyway? Finding Strength in the Local Perspective

After grappling with the profound implications of when we design and confronting the stark reality of where we design on this Anthropocene-altered planet, I find myself wrestling with an equally fundamental, and perhaps even more tangled, question: Whose design are we actually talking about? Whose experiences shape its definition? Whose histories are centered, and whose are pushed to the margins? It’s a question that throws into sharp relief the very power dynamics embedded within our field and challenges us to seek a truly symbiotic path forward, one rooted in place and perspective.

What is this elusive practice we call design? It’s a question that seems to constantly circle back on itself. I think of Gabriel Simón Sol’s incredible effort, compiling over a hundred definitions for Design, and rather than seeing it as a failure to reach consensus, I wonder if it reveals something essential about design’s multifaceted nature. It reminds me, too, of Néstor Canclini pointing out how anthropologists Kroeber and Kluckhohn found over three hundred definitions of “culture.” Perhaps some concepts are just too rich, too lived, too contextual to be neatly pinned down. It brings Humberto Maturana’s words to mind: “everything we say, we say as mere observers.” Could it be that our attempts to define design inevitably reflect our own specific reality, our own needs, our own unique vantage point as observers within a particular time and place?

Certainly, looking at design’s evolution, it resists easy categorization. It’s spanned everything from the deeply pragmatic and hands-on to the wildly conceptual or intuitive, sometimes seeming almost allergic to formal scientific methods. Yet today, I feel we need a far more nuanced view. We talk about design being transdisciplinary – tackling messy, real-world problems, as Erlhoff described them, that simply refuse to fit neatly into any single disciplinary box. We discuss it in terms of sustainability, transculturality, constantly negotiating the fluid boundaries between fields. It’s within this complex, shifting landscape that visions like Arturo Escobar’s “Designs for the Pluriverse” resonate so powerfully with me. His call for a world where many diverse design philosophies and practices can flourish, each deeply rooted in its specific cultural and ecological context, feels like a vital antidote to the homogenizing forces we often face. Escobar’s emphasis on “autonomous design”—prioritizing collaboration, place-based knowledge, and the profound interconnectedness of all living things—aligns perfectly with the symbiotic ethos I’m striving to articulate here. Embracing this idea of a pluriverse, it seems to me, is fundamental if we want to move beyond one-size-fits-all solutions and cultivate designs that are genuinely responsive and nurturing within their unique homes.

014 Unpacking the Baggage: Eurocentrism, Colonial Gazes, and the Search for Our Own North

But embarking on that journey towards a pluriverse requires us to first confront the historical baggage we carry. Néstor Canclini, citing Grimson, argued compellingly that “the cultural” often reveals its true colours at the margins, in contested territories, making it inherently political. I see this mirrored in design. Yet, when I examine the stories commonly told about design’s history, especially in education, I’m struck by the overwhelming Eurocentric focus, occasionally punctuated by nods to the United States. Where are the rich narratives from Latin America, Africa, Asia? As Gabriel Matthey Correa argued concerning Chile and South America, we often continue to live as cultural colonies, even centuries after political independence. The long shadow of the Eurocentric model, later amplified by what Francis Fukuyama called “Americanization,” seems to create persistent barriers, hindering the emergence of truly fresh, locally grounded visions. Consequently, our very idea of what constitutes “real design” often remains unconsciously tethered to these dominant cultural viewpoints.

It makes you question the very ground you stand on. The American anthropologist Sally Price spoke insightfully about how “primitive arts” are often constructed through the “civilized gaze”, while simultaneously, those being gazed upon internalize and react to these external judgments. Guy Bonsiepe famously referred to South American countries as “peripheral”—a term that, even decades later, carries a sting because it reflects an enduring power dynamic where cultural centers define the norm. When one group implicitly claims the authority to define “true design”, it inherently devalues the diverse living realities and creative contributions of others, often dismissing them as less significant, less evolved. Our conceptual compass, as designers in many parts of the world, still seems stubbornly fixed on this imposed “North.”

This realization feels like a call to action – a demand to rethink design from its very foundations. Do the standard, often imported, methodologies truly serve our diverse local realities? Or do they perpetuate a harmful disconnect? I believe the time is long overdue to start constructing our own frameworks, ones that arise authentically from our contexts, speak to our needs, and are woven from the threads of our unique cultural heritages. But, and this feels critically important, we must do this by genuinely recognizing all contributions, honouring original authors and contexts, and actively resisting the urge to underestimate, ignore, or appropriate. George Lipsitz’s concept of “anti-essentialism,” describing how cultural properties get deliberately detached from their origins, what we now commonly call cultural appropriation is a phenomenon we must confront head-on. It’s not just individuals; Canclini observed how entire societies, operating within the logic of globalization and neoliberalism, can reduce the cultural expressions, even the people, of “other” societies to mere commodities once removed from their context. Their meanings shift, mutate, often losing their depth, reinforcing those old colonial attitudes, the subtle assumption that if it comes from a “less developed” place, it’s somehow raw material, freely available for exploitation. We see echoes of this logic in the historical and ongoing exploitation of human beings through modern slavery and exploitative labor practices, often benefiting those of us in privileged positions. By unconsciously replicating this logic in our own creative and production processes, we risk perpetuating that colonizing stance towards our own local cultures and stifling our own potential. Developing a critical self-awareness feels paramount if we are to break free from these cycles of intellectual and cultural colonialism and forge design pathways that are truly our own.

The global landscape is littered with examples of this playing out. The notorious case of the French company Antiquité Vatic taking a traditional Tlahuitoltepec blouse and selling it at an exorbitant markup wasn’t just disrespectful; it was an act of economic extraction built on cultural erasure, sparking justifiable outrage. The fact that numerous organizations, even the United Nations, are now grappling with how to protect cultural heritage underscores the urgency and complexity of this issue. It presents a profound ethical dilemma, especially for designers working across cultures: How do we engage respectfully with the heritage of communities, especially those who have been historically marginalized? How do we avoid reducing deep cultural meaning to superficial aesthetics or market trends when translating ideas across contexts? How can design honour, rather than exploit, indigenous knowledge and cultural patrimony?

Without consciously developing our own design models, rooted in our specific realities and conditions, I fear we remain trapped, unable to practice design in a way that feels truly authentic or impactful. We risk perpetuating this uncomfortable duality, being both victims of imported norms and, perhaps unwittingly, perpetrators of appropriation or indifference towards our own local contexts. Recognizing this is, I believe, the essential first step towards creating frameworks that consciously dismantle colonial mindsets and celebrate the power and diversity of local knowledge.

015 Chile’s Crossroads: Environmental Reckoning and Design’s Untapped Potential

Bringing this closer to home, the environmental and cultural trajectory of Chile serves as a poignant case study. There’s the stark contrast between the pre-colonial Indigenous relationship with the land, seeing nature as sustainer, respecting cycles, like the Pehuenche ensuring that when they were recollecting piñones, enough remained for others and for the forest regeneration, and the subsequent colonial view of the land as a resource cache ripe for exploitation.

This extractive mentality went into overdrive following the coup against Salvador Allende, when the “Chicago Boys” implemented their radical neoliberal blueprint. Natural resources were aggressively exploited, local industries collapsed under waves of imports, and essential elements like water were privatized, a move Pinochet pioneered before Thatcher followed suit. It took decades of environmental degradation, punctuated by industrial disasters and catalyzed by activists like Douglas Tompkins (whose initial conservation efforts were met with deep suspicion), for widespread public awareness and outrage to finally take root. Chileans began confronting the legacy of abuse by powerful corporate and political interests. Citizen movements successfully challenged destructive megaprojects, leading eventually to the creation of the Ministry of the Environment in 2010 and stricter regulations.

Yet, despite this societal shift, Chilean design, on the whole, seems to have remained largely disconnected from this critical environmental awakening. Much of it continues to operate in niche markets, inaccessible to most, while mass-market goods are overwhelmingly imported, carrying a heavy ecological toll. There’s a persistent sense that the local design sector hasn’t found its voice, its unique way of responding to Chile’s specific ecological and cultural context. It often feels stuck in that inherited extractive, colonial mindset, looking outward for models rather than inward for strength. How can Chilean or any other country’s design break this pattern? How can it become a true reflection of, and contributor to, those places? It requires, I am convinced, a deliberate commitment to “design local”—fostering deep collaboration between designers, scientists, artists, communities, valuing their own unique heritage and potential, and refusing to remain just a “happy copy of Eden” as Chile’s national anthem ironically claims. And this challenge, of course, resonates far beyond, echoing in many post-colonial nations still grappling with economic systems that favor resource extraction by global corporations over local production and ecological well-being.

016 The Unavoidable Politics of Shaping Futures

This deep dive into local context and historical legacies forces me to confront a truth that feels increasingly unavoidable: design is inherently, inescapably political. Michel Foucault spoke of politics as the ongoing negotiation of power relationships, and design is smack in the middle of those negotiations. We might prefer to see our work as neutral, objective, purely creative, but every choice we make shifts power, allocates resources, defines possibilities, includes or excludes.

Think about the spectrum of political systems throughout history, which political scientists like Robert Dahl have helped us map. At one end, you have highly participatory, consensus-driven cultures like the Iroquois Confederacy or the Mapuche Nation – decentralized structures that proved remarkably resilient because power wasn’t concentrated in one vulnerable point. Contrast that with the centralized power of the Aztec or Inca empires, which, despite their achievements, collapsed swiftly when their single ruler was captured. Or consider the varying models in Phoenicia, Greece, China, or the Mauryan Empire, each balancing authority and participation differently, each with its own strengths and vulnerabilities. At the extreme end lies totalitarianism, where concentrated power suppresses all dissent. Modern democracies, ideally, aim for something closer to Dahl’s “polyarchy,” distributing power through various checks and balances to foster participation and accountability.

What does this have to do with design? Everything, I believe. The core principle holds true: systems where power and decision-making are distributed tend to be more stable, adaptable, and resilient. Systems where power is tightly concentrated are brittle, prone to collapse, and often resistant to necessary change. How often do our design processes mirror those vulnerable, centralized models?

Cybersyn’s Ghost: A Vision of Decentralized Design

The story of Stafford Beer and Project Cybersyn during Salvador Allende’s brief socialist government in Chile offers a tantalizing glimpse of an alternative. Beer, a visionary in management cybernetics, was invited to help manage Chile’s nationalized economy. His response wasn’t a rigid, top-down plan, but Cybersyn – a radical experiment using cybernetic principles and (for the time) advanced technology (telex networks, simulators, custom software, a futuristic Ops Room) to create a near real-time economic management system.

At its heart was Beer’s conviction, articulated in Designing Freedom and his “Law of Requisite Variety,” that complex systems need equally complex, adaptive management structures. Cybersyn aimed for a delicate balance: national strategic direction combined with significant local autonomy for factories and workers. It envisioned a distributed network capable of processing information and adapting locally, while a central hub ensured alignment with broader goals – mirroring how resilient societies navigate crises. It was an attempt to build requisite variety into the management system itself.

Tragically, the 1973 coup swept Cybersyn away before it could be fully realized. However, beyond its abrupt political end, its ultimate failure to take root stemmed from a perception insufficiently attuned to the specific socio-political and infrastructural realities of Chile at that particular juncture. While undoubtedly a groundbreaking experiment in design and systemic thinking, I argue that Cybersyn, in its ambitious vision, operated with a degree of disconnection from the immediate, complex actualities it aimed to manage, making its full, sustainable implementation fraught even without external political disruption.

Yet, even in its incomplete state, perhaps especially during its partial success in coordinating resources during the 1972 truckers’ strike, it served as powerful proof that groundbreaking, systemic design thinking isn’t confined to wealthy nations. It demonstrated how design can arise directly from urgent local needs, leveraging available technology (even humble telex machines) in visionary ways. Its legacy, for me, is a potent reminder of the power of distributed intelligence, feedback loops, and designing for adaptability, principles absolutely core to the Symbiotic Design Framework I’m presenting. It challenges the hierarchical models still so prevalent in design and governance. While the technology has evolved exponentially, the core ideas behind Cybersyn, balancing central coordination with peripheral autonomy, fostering rapid information exchange and empowering local actors feel more relevant than ever, echoing in today’s agile methodologies and collaborative platforms. Cybersin was one of the predecessors of the Internet as we know it today.

017 Design Adrift? Confronting Our Complicity

Looking at the current state of design, however, I worry that we haven’t fully learned these lessons. How often does our field still cling rigidly to singular “correct” ways of doing things, often tied to historical narratives (Bauhaus, Constructivism, etc.) linked to specific political or economic contexts? With the rise of globalization, design became deeply entwined with a neoliberal economic model, didn’t it? Prioritizing marketability, short-term gains, fueling consumption – often, it seems, “forgetting” its deeper potential and responsibility to envision genuinely better futures, effectively selling its soul to the highest bidder.

This dominant paradigm – Western neoliberal democracy plus free-market capitalism – took hold after the Cold War, often presented as the only viable path. Nations deviating were marginalized. Environmental and human costs in production centers were conveniently ignored as long as the goods kept flowing. And design, I fear, became incredibly adept at facilitating this system, perfecting the art of creating desire while often turning a blind eye to the consequences. Who, after all, designs the products, the packaging, the advertising, the interfaces that drive this model? We do.

The cascading global crises of recent years – the pandemic, the invasion of Ukraine, Trump’s tariffs war and reckless bullying, the countless other conflicts and humanitarian disasters simmering worldwide, have starkly exposed the fragility and inadequacy of this approach. The obsession with short-term market logic has, I believe, atrophied design’s capacity to engage with the complex, wicked problems that demand long-term vision, systemic thinking, and ethical courage. Our focus on consumerism has left us ill-equipped. It feels like a critical failure, demanding a radical rethink of our purpose. Can design decouple itself from this dominant economic narrative and refocus on nurturing a better future for everyone and everything?

018 Every Choice Matters: The Personal Politics of Practice

This forces a recognition: every time I, or any designer, takes on a project, it’s a political decision. Choosing to work with this company, that government agency, this NGO, that social group – each collaboration carries weight, aligns us with certain values, certain power structures. Even choosing not to question the brief, accepting it passively, is itself a political act, an acceptance of the status quo. Politics, as Foucault helped me see, isn’t just about elections; it’s about the constant negotiation of power, and design is right there, shaping those negotiations. Working for a client whose core mission harms people or the planet is an active political choice reinforcing that harm.

Of course, the impulse to simply say “refuse to work for the dark side” is overly simplistic. The ethical landscape is complex, murky, full of compromises. But the starting point, surely, is awareness.

And these political choices permeate our professional lives on every level. Which sub-discipline do we pursue? Commercial branding or community-led social innovation? Human-centered design that optimizes consumption, or ecological design aiming for regeneration? Do we design cars that perpetuate fossil fuel dependence, or envision integrated transport systems? What do we teach? Fleeting trends, or critical thinking about design’s impact? Do we challenge the notion that “fashion” devoid of context is responsible design, or do we simply replicate marketing imperatives? As educators, we hold immense political power in shaping the next generation.

Even within a single project, the choices pile up, each carrying political weight: Which materials? What colours and textures (and their cultural associations)? What lifespan are we designing for? What relationship with the user? What story does the visual representation tell? Are we designing for disposability or durability? Meeting a need or manufacturing desire? Degrading the environment or regenerating it? Was our research deep and contextual, or superficial and assumed? Were users co-designers, or passive recipients? Was the tool we used ethically produced?

Yes, the weight of this awareness can feel paralyzing. But ignorance is not a defensible position. Cultivating the ability to see these intersecting variables, to recognize the political dimension in every choice, empowers us to act more consciously, more responsibly. We might not change the world with a single project, but the cumulative impact of countless small, deliberate, ethically-informed decisions across our field? That could be monumental.

019 A Call to Rethink Our Models, From the Roots Up

So, whether we find ourselves working in a nation labeled “developing” or “developed,” the fundamental question confronts us: How will we shape our careers? How will we educate the designers who follow? Will we simply perpetuate the existing models, reinforcing power structures and practices that we know are often unjust and unsustainable? Or will we commit to the harder, more vital work of creating new models – models that are equitable, regenerative, deeply attuned to local realities, and politically conscious?

The imperative feels clearer to me than ever. We must make conscious political choices, because design is political. And it’s profoundly ethical. We wield power in deciding whose voices are heard, whose needs are met, how resources are used, which futures are made more or less likely. As Foucault observed, politics shapes who we become. In design, that shaping belongs to all of us. By intentionally distributing power within our processes, embracing diverse perspectives, challenging our own biases – especially the lingering Eurocentric ones that erase vital histories like Chile’s Escuela de Artes y Oficios or Mexico’s early Jesuit design education, long predating the Bauhaus – we can start building the resilience and collective intelligence needed to navigate the turbulent waters ahead.

020 Embracing Local Identity for a Truly Symbiotic Future

This exploration has, for me, underscored the absolute necessity of centering local perspectives within any framework aiming for genuine symbiosis. Recognizing the inescapable political nature of our work, actively challenging the biases embedded in dominant design histories, and cultivating a deep respect for diverse cultural and environmental contexts – these feel like non-negotiable starting points. The story of Project Cybersyn, emerging from the unique pressures of Allende’s Chile, serves as a potent reminder that groundbreaking innovation doesn’t belong to any single region; it often sparks precisely at the intersection of local needs and bold, systemic thinking. Moving forward, the task is urgent: we must continue the work of decolonizing design, valuing the incredible tapestry of knowledge and practice woven across the globe. By prioritizing local identity, fostering genuine collaboration, embracing critical self-reflection, and acknowledging our political agency, I believe we can begin to unlock design’s true transformative potential – the potential to help weave truly symbiotic relationships between people, communities, technologies, and the living planet we all share. Design is a political act! 

El Diseño es un acto político. ¡Siempre!

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